Quinoa Cultivation in Western North America: Lessons Learned and the Path Forward.

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a relatively new crop to farmers in North America; however recent interest in domestic cultivation of quinoa has skyrocketed due to a rapid, worldwide increase in demand for this nutritious and delicious Andean crop. Researchers at five western U.S. universities have initiated interdisciplinary collaborations with each other and with farmers over the past several years to address many of the varietal and agronomic issues associated with quinoa production. Abiotic stresses including excessive salinity, drought, harvest precipitation, and heat each play a critical role in defining the potential marginal and optimal geographic regions for quinoa production. Multi-location variety trials have identified genotypes with enhanced tolerances to these abiotic stresses, and a breeding program was developed in 2010 to exploit these potential genotype by environment interactions. The allotetraploid genome of quinoa has recently been sequenced, which will further allow for advances in quinoa breeding, localized adaptation, and varietal development. Biotic stresses have been equally challenging, with lygus (Lygus spp.), aphids (Hayhurstia atriplicis and Aphis nasturtii), stem borer (Crambus sp.), armyworms (Spodoptera ornithogalli), and downy mildew (Peronospora variabilis) emerging as the primary pests of quinoa in the western U.S. Competition from weedy relatives (C. album and C. berlandieri) has also been problematic. A broad range of agronomic and cropping system trials on organic, conventional, and no-till partner farms have provided initial grower guidelines with regards to fertility, irrigation, seeding rate, planting date, crop rotation and intercropping options. Varietal differences in end-use quality traits including protein content, total starch and amylose content, saponin content, seed size, color, and hardness, seed coat proportion, cooking quality, and sensory profiles (aroma, taste/flavor, and texture), have been identified in an effort to develop market classes targeted for unique, distinct, and novel end-uses.